Located in the Southern Africa with an average altitude of 1200 metres, Zambia is a landloacked country occupying a total land area of 752,612  square kilometres[1], [2]. The country is bordered by the Democratic Republic of Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the South, and Angola to the west – a situation which makes a potential hub for trade and regional integration. Administratively, Zambia is split into ten provinces namely, Central, Copperbelt, Eastern, Luapula, Lusaka, Muchinga, Northern, North-Western, Southern and Western provinces.
Zambia has an estimated population of 18.9 million people, with a rapid growth rate of about 2.9 per cent (in 2021) [3] – a factor which is key to the country’s environmental change. The country’s population is mainly youthful, with upto 46 per cent being below the age of 15 years[2]. Its population remains largely rural, with nearly 44.1 per cent of the population living in urban areas. The country’s urban population is estimated to have a growth rate higher than 4 per cent[3].
Its regular climatic situations are defined by three seasons of rainfall. The first season occurs mainly between November and April, a period which is also its main farming season. This is followed by a cool and dry period that runs from May to August tends, and September to October that is mainly hot and dry. 
After 15 years of significant socio-economic progress and achieving a lower middle-income status in 2011, Zambia’s economic performance has stalled in recent years. Natioal reports show between 2000 and 2014, Zambia’s annual real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate averaged 6.8 per cent. That GDP growth rate slackened to 3.1 per cent per annum between 2015 and 2019, mainly ascribed to falling copper prices and declines in agricultural output and hydro-electric power generation due to insufficient rains, and insufficient policy adjustment to these exogenous shocks. The COVID-19 pandemic further impacted the economy, which was already weakened by recent persistent droughts, falling copper prices and unsustainable fiscal policies. 
Zambia is endowed with natural resources that contribute significantly to the national economy. Mining has been a key driver of the Zambian economy for many years. The Government, however, has continued to diversify the economy to focus on other key economic sectors such as agriculture, energy, transport, construction, manufacturing, and tourism[3]. Employment in the services sector increased from 26.9 per cent in 2010 to 40.7 per cent in 2021[3]. Zambia’s agricultural sector is the socio-economic backbone of the rural population, with 60 per cent being dependent on the sector as the main source of income and livelihood. In 2021, agriculture contributed about 3.4 per cent of GDP, while employing 48.5 per cent of the total labour force.
About one sixth of the rural population depend heavily on forests and non-forest resources for their livelihood and forests contribute approximately 20 per cent to rural household incomes. Both indirect and direct values of forests are estimated to make a GDP contribution of about 4.7 per cent if well managed. However, unsustainable charcoal and fuel wood production and the unsustainable clearance of forest land for agriculture and settlement expansion has resulted in high rates of deforestation and increased local level greenhouse gas emissions. Wood fuel, primarily in the form of charcoal, is Zambia’s main source of energy for households, accounting for 90 per cent of domestic energy consumption. Charcoal production is estimated to be responsible for around 30 per cent of the country’s deforestation[4], [5]
Despite impressive growth rates and the country reaching low middle-income status, Zambia continues to struggle to translate its economic growth into poverty eradication and reduction of inequalities. Poverty is increasing in absolute and relative terms, with 54.4 per cent of the population being considered poor and 40.8 per cent extremely poor. Poverty is primarily a rural phenomenon as 77 per cent of the poor population live in rural areas[6]. Zambia positioned at 146 out of 189 countries and territories in UNDP’s 2019 Human Development Index (HDI), with a value of 0.584, placing Zambia in the medium human development category[6], [7].
Zambia has 2,800 MW of installed electricity generation capacity, of which 85 per cent is hydro based. National access to electricity is estimated at 31 per cent, with 67 per cent of the urban and just 4 per cent of the rural population having access to power. The country has set the goal for universal electricity access for all its people by 2030[7].
Zambia’s climate is highly variable and over the last few decades has experienced a series of climatic extremes, including droughts, seasonal floods and flash floods, extreme temperatures and dry spells, many of these with increased frequency, intensity and magnitude[8].

The Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) is the principal environmental regulator in the country. The agency, which falls under the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment, administers the country’s principal environment law, the Environmental Management Act. This Act provides a legal framework for coordinated management of the environment and natural resources[9]. Other important environmental laws and policies in Zambia include the National Conservation Strategy, the National Environmental Action Plan, and the National Policy on the Environment. 
In addition to ZEMA, several other governmental institutions and agencies play a role in environmental management, covering the sectors of energy, agriculture, fisheries, wildlife, industrial development, environmental protection, and other natural resources. Zambia’s environmental policy is further guided by several conventions to which the country is a party.
Vision 2030 is Zambia’s long-term strategy that reflects the collective understanding, aspirations, and determination of the Zambian people to be a prosperous middle-income nation by the year 2030. The Vision is implemented through 5-year medium term National Development Plans. Zambia is currently implementing its eight National Development Plan (8NDP) which runs from 2022 to 2026, supported by sectoral policies, strategies, and programmes[2]. Environmental Sustainability is at the core of the 8NDP, with an implementation approach that considers the global community’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Government further recognises that achieving sustainable development in Zambia requires access to data and information so that those involved in decision making can reach the level of knowledge and understanding needed for successful programme planning and service delivery. For this reason, the country has been engaged in periodic State of Environment (SoE) Outlook reporting and four editions of reports were produced in 1994, 2000, 2008 and 2017. These reports have been useful in pointing out environmental trends and conditions.

Despite being a low carbon emissions country, climate change is a key problem in Zambia. For nearly 20 years, the country has continued to experience yearly episodes of droughts, dry spells, and floods that have negatively impacted key sectors of its economy and led to significant economic and livelihood losses[2]. 
In 2007/08, for instance, floods and flooding across several districts in the country, affected an estimated 274,800 people (about 45,800 households) and caused extensive damage to human settlement and shelter, infrastructure, water and sanitation, health and nutrition, education and agriculture and food security. Projections indicate climate change impacts are set to slow Zambia   -s development process, with associated costs being estimated at around USD $13.8 billion loss in GDP.
Zambia continues to experience climate change and climate variability[10]. Mean annual temperature in the country has already increased by 1.3°C since 1960, at an average rate of 0.29°C per decade. From 1971 to 2005, a 58 mm decline in rainfall (6 per cent) was recorded relative to 1940 to 1970. The South-Western region was the most severely affected with rainfall seasons becoming critically shorter. Additionally, Zambia has experienced more frequent and intense droughts, dry spells and floods[8].
Zambia   -s climate is expected to continue to change. Mean annual temperature is projected to increase 1.2–3.4˚C by 2060, with warming occurring more rapidly in the south and west. A decrease in rainfall is expected during September-October, while an increase is expected during December-February, particularly in the northeast of the country. The proportion of rain falling in heavy events is also expected to increase annually[7].
Since 2000, Zambia has experienced nearly annual episodes of droughts, dry spells, and floods that have negatively impacted key sectors of the country   -s economy and led to significant economic and livelihood losses. For instance, the 2007/08 rainy season caused floods in several districts in the country, which affected an estimated 274,800 people (45,799.96 households) and caused extensive damage to human settlement and shelter, infrastructure, water and sanitation, health and nutrition, education and agriculture and food security. Climate change impacts may slow the development process of the country and could cost Zambia approximately USD $13.8 billion loss in GDP[10].
Agriculture is the mainstay of rural employment in Zambia and most livelihoods depend on staple crops like cassava and maize, whose yields rely on a timely rainy season and stable temperatures[11]. For maize, climate change may significantly reduce yields in Southern and Eastern Provinces in the future. Projected climate changes in Zambia will also likely result in agricultural losses due to waterlogged fields, water shortages, destruction of crops and higher incidences of crop and livestock diseases[10].
Climate change is projected to reduce water availability by about 13 per cent by 2100 in Zambia impacting hydropower generation, agriculture, industrial production and domestic use[10]. Climate change will also likely exacerbate existing problems related to the uneven distribution of water resources. Water storage potential is negatively impacted by recurrent droughts in summer months, while floods in the north have led to contamination and the spread of waterborne illnesses that affect both humans and livestock[11].
Climate change will likely result in an increased prevalence of diseases, including malaria, diarrhea, and respiratory infections. Malaria continues to be a major public health problem in Zambia, estimated to affect over 4 million Zambians annually and climate change has contributed to its persistence[10], [11]. Cholera is also a recurrent problem in peri-urban areas and linked to weather; a 2010 outbreak in Lusaka following heavy rains and flooding reached almost 4,500 cases. Further, potential changes in agricultural productivity may exacerbate already high rates of malnutrition and food insecurity[11].
Zambia   -s ecosystems are also vulnerable to climate change, including the country   -s forests and wetlands. Additionally, drought negatively affects the tourism sector especially in Livingstone due to reduced water levels at the Victoria Falls, Zambia   -s prime tourist attraction. In 2015, Victoria Falls, a UNESCO World Heritage site, made international headlines for its historically low water levels.[10], [11].

Contributors to poor air quality in Zambia include copper mining, fertilizer manufacturing, vehicle emissions, and waste burning[15]. Air pollution from indoor sources is the single largest contributor to the negative health effects of air pollution in Zambia, causing an estimated 8,700 premature deaths every year. The majority of the population relies heavily on charcoal and firewood for heating and cooking, whilst candles and kerosene are used for lighting[5].
The growth of the urban population and increased economic activity has resulted in greater generation and the accumulation of waste in Zambia. In Lusaka, challenges affecting an efficient sustainable waste management system include the lack of waste separation at the source, insufficient funds, and a lack of equipment[17].

Contributors to poor air quality in Zambia include copper mining, fertilizer manufacturing, vehicle emissions, and waste burning[15]. Air pollution from indoor sources is the single largest contributor to the negative health effects of air pollution in Zambia, causing an estimated 8,700 premature deaths every year. The majority of the population relies heavily on charcoal and firewood for heating and cooking, whilst candles and kerosene are used for lighting[5].
The growth of the urban population and increased economic activity has resulted in greater generation and the accumulation of waste in Zambia. In Lusaka, challenges affecting an efficient sustainable waste management system include the lack of waste separation at the source, insufficient funds, and a lack of equipment[17].

The National Policy on Climate Change (NPCC) defines the climate change coordination structure in the country[10]. Its overall objective is to provide a framework for coordinating climate change programmes in order to ensure climate resilient and low carbon development pathways for sustainable development towards the attainment of Zambia -s Vision 2030. The policy promotes mainstreaming of climate change into policies, plans and strategies at all levels to inform decision-making and implementation. Arising from this policy direction, the country has taken measures to mainstream climate change in the national development planning process, including in the Eight National Development Plan (8NDP)[2]. 
Several legislations have been put in place to address climate change in Zambia. For instance, the Zambian Constitution, Article 257 provides for establishment of mechanisms to address climate change. Further, the Environmental Management Act No.12 of 2011 ensures the protection of the environment and control of pollution. Other relevant legislations include Forest Act No. 4 of 2015, Energy Regulations Act No. 23 of 2003, Disaster Management Act No. 13 of 2010, among others. The country has also developed several climate-related sectoral policies and measures including, among others, the National Energy Policy of 2019, National Industrial Policy of 2018, the Second National Agriculture Policy of 2016 and the REDD+ Strategy, 2015[10].
In fulfilling its obligation to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Zambia has submitted three National Communications (2004, 2014 and 2020), its First Biennial Update Report (2020), and its revised Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021. Through its updated NDC, Zambia intends to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 25 per cent, at Business as Usual (BAU), level of international support prevailing in 2015 and towards 47 per cent (with substantial international support) compared to 2010 levels.
The mitigation actions are focused on three programmes: (i) sustainable forest management; (ii) sustainable agriculture; and (iii) renewable energy and energy efficiency. Adaptation actions in the NDC are focused on strategic productive systems (agriculture, wildlife and water), strategic infrastructure and health systems and enhanced capacity building, research, technology transfer and finance for adaptation.
In April 2021, the government of Zambia launched a new initiative to adapt to climate change. The project is part of a wider attempt in the country to improve the livelihoods of rural communities by restoring damaged ecosystems. With over USD 6 million from the Global Environment Facility, the initiative is focusing on the Lukanga and Bangweulu wetlands in the Central and Luapula parts of the country. The initiative will restore these ecosystems, while choosing climate-resilient plant and crop species for long-term sustainability and improved livelihoods. The Lukanga and Bangweulu wetlands are both listed as wetlands of    -international importance   - under the Ramsar Convention, and they are two of the country   -s key hotspots for fisheries, which makes them crucial for economic development.
The 4-year project, executed by Zambia   -s Ministry of Green Economy and Environment, through the Climate Change Department, with support from the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), is attempting to upscale and expand the use of Ecosystem-based Adaptation across the country by providing training to local and central government on how to best implement the approach.
Notwithstanding Zambia   -s progress in responding to climate change, several challenges abound. As outlined in its First Biennial Update Report, Zambia conducted a study which revealed gaps related to financial, technology and capacity needs required to make informed decisions on climate change actions.  On climate finance, for instance, a situation analysis on the state of climate finance readiness was carried out in Zambia in 2014. The analysis revealed that capacity was still needed at both national and local government levels, particularly in raising climate funds, translating policies and strategies into bankable projects and in implementing projects. National capacity to access climate finance was limited by the absence of accredited National Implementing Entities (NIE) for Green Climate Fund (GCF) and Adaptation Fund. Further, the country   -s capacity to access climate finance is limited by the low participation of the private sector. On technology development and transfer, the country has continued to face constraints related to financing of appropriate climate technologies. In addition, access, and deployment of appropriate technologies for climate action remains a challenge.

•	The adoption of climate smart agriculture practices offers potentially substantial climate change mitigation co-benefits likely to increase productivity and resilience while decreasing the sector   -s GHGs.
•	Increase and enhance actions to reduce deforestation by minimising opening up of new land for agriculture and settlements. Thus, there is need to promote high-rise residential areas to minimise opening up of new land for settlement in urban areas.
•	There is need to restrict use of charcoal and provide support in connecting all un-electrified households in urban areas and increase the rate of electrification in rural areas.
•	Promotion of alternative energy sources for cooking and heating such as LPG, gel, pellets.
•	Alongside these promotion efforts, awareness campaigns should be carried out on the availability, safe use and economic viability of these alternatives.
•	Incorporate climate change programmes into the school curriculum and increase awareness and sensitization of communities on sustainable agriculture and forest management.
•	Increase funding to afforestation and reforestation programmes including provisions of incentives to attract private sector investment in the mitigation initiatives.
•	Promotion of energy efficiency and alternative and renewable energy sources such as solar, thermal, and nuclear energy to reduce over dependence on hydro power generation which requires use of water resources.
•	Integrated watershed management to prevent land degradation, siltation, deforestation and depletion of ground water designated watershed areas.
•	Investment in early warning systems and timely dissemination of information.
•	Strengthening surveillance systems for potential disease outbreaks and quick response strategies.

Zambia has been predominantly a mining country, endowed with mineral wealth that includes copper, cobalt, gold, nickel, lead, silver, uranium, zinc, and numerous precious and semi-precious stones[12]. Kabwe, Zambia, was once the site of prominent lead and zinc mining activities. Although the mine was formally closed in 1994, mining residues were abandoned in a dumping site adjacent to residential areas, locally known as Black Mountain, and continued to contaminate surrounding areas through the flow of wind and water[13]. In the vicinity of the abandoned mine, the soils have also been contaminated by heavy metals[12].
Presently, Kabwe is listed as one of the ten most polluted sites in the world and the health conditions of its residents are concerning[13]. Research has shown that inhabitants of Kabwe have very high blood levels of the toxic heavy metals lead and Cadmium[14]. In a recent study, 74.9 per cent of residents from 372 households had blood lead levels (BLLs) greater than 5 μg/dL, the standard reference level for lead poisoning. Lead poisoning is one of the most serious and harmful consequences of environmental pollution. High levels of lead intake adversely affect the functioning of the circulatory and nervous systems, which can be fatal in extreme cases, whereas low-level exposure can also reduce cognitive ability and cause developmental disorders[12].
Mining operations also impact air quality. In the mining towns of the Copperbelt Province, miners and residents have endlessly been exposed to elevated concentrations of SO2 and PM. Residents of mining towns, particularly Mufulira, reportedly complain of an array of diseases including pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and other respiratory complications associated with mine air pollution[13].
In accordance with the World Health Organization-s guidelines, the air quality in Zambia is considered moderately unsafe. The most recent data indicates the country-s annual mean concentration of PM2.5 is more than double the recommended maximum of 10 µg/m3[15].
Waste management has emerged as one of the greatest challenges facing Lusaka City, the capital and largest city of Zambia[16]. According to the Lusaka City Council and Environmental Council, Lusaka generates about 1,000 tons of solid waste a day. However, only about 300 tons of the waste is disposed of at the designated dumpsites and treated in a sustainable environmental manner[17]. As a result, indiscriminate illegal dumping[16] and the open burning of waste are common practices. Solid Waste Management (SWM) is a major public health concern worldwide as poor management of waste not only leads to declining environmental health conditions but also contributes to disease outbreaks[17].

Contributors to poor air quality in Zambia include copper mining, fertilizer manufacturing, vehicle emissions, and waste burning[15]. Air pollution from indoor sources is the single largest contributor to the negative health effects of air pollution in Zambia, causing an estimated 8,700 premature deaths every year. The majority of the population relies heavily on charcoal and firewood for heating and cooking, whilst candles and kerosene are used for lighting[5].
The growth of the urban population and increased economic activity has resulted in greater generation and the accumulation of waste in Zambia. In Lusaka, challenges affecting an efficient sustainable waste management system include the lack of waste separation at the source, insufficient funds, and a lack of equipment[17].

The 1994 National Water Policy was revised considering issues such as the principles of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). This culminated into the development of the 2010 National Water Policy and the enactment of the Water Resources Management Act No. 21 of 2011 which provides the legal framework for the revised policy. This led to the establishment of the National Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA) which is responsible for the management, development, conservation, protection and preservation of water resources and its ecosystems[20]
Water pollution is strictly prohibited under Section 46 of the Environmental Management Act 2011, and under Section 48 of the Act, the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) is given the mandate to “do all such things as are necessary for the monitoring and control of water pollution”, including: establishing pollution control standards; setting conditions for the discharge of effluent into the environment and issuing and monitoring effluent discharge licenses; monitoring water quality data; carrying out Environmental Impact Assessments for developments that may have an impact on water resources; and investigating suspected cases of water pollution.
The WSS sector is primarily the responsibility of Ministry of Water Development, Sanitation and Environmental Protection (MWDSEP). The countrys National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (2020) is aimed at accelerating universal access to clean and safe water and adequate sanitation in Zambia. The development of the policy is anchored on the National Vision (Vision 2030) and the SDGs, and its implementation shall be through National Development Plans and National Strategic Plans[20].
Other relevant plans in Zambia include the Integrated Water Resources Management and Water Efficiency (IWRM/WE) Implementation Plan (2007-2030), Ministerial and Institutional Strategic Plans, National Drought Plan of 2018, and the Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP) [7]. Zambia is also party to the following agreements, protocols and plans that exist at regional and basin level; (i) Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM), (ii) SADC Declaration and Treaty, (iii) SADC Regional Indicative Development Plan, (iv) SADC Revised Protocol on Shared Waters, (v) SADC Regional Strategic Action Plan (RSAP IV), (vi) Convention on The Sustainable Management of Lake Tanganyika
The main challenges to the implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Zambia include inadequate funding; limited data sharing among institutions; limited monitoring instruments or network for surface and groundwater; incomplete governance structures; and limited stakeholder awareness on the need to recognise vulnerable groups to participate in water resources planning and management.
The water supply and sanitation (WSS) sector is also challenged by inadequate funding, with the historical budget allocation showing a declining trend. Annual average budget allocation to the sector programs was US$140 million per year under the Sixth National Development Plan and fell to US$80 million per year under the Seventh National Development Plan. Additionally, the budget allocations approved by the Ministry of Finance (MoF) are almost always lower than those in the National Development Plan, and actual releases are always lower than the approved budget. In some years, releases have fallen to only 40 per cent of the budgeted amount[19].
Two flagship national programs, the National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program (NRWSSP) and the National Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Program (NUWSSP), aim to accelerate improvements in WSS coverage across the country. However, budget allocations and releases have been inconsistent with the programs ambitions. The NRWSSP especially, is insufficiently funded. Planned NRWSSP expenditure for 2016–20 was US$66 million per year, but actual MoF allocations between 2016 and 2018 for rural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) was just US$14 million per year. So far, both major flagship programs have failed to close the service gap[19].

The Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act of 1990 establishes Zambia-s Environmental Council with a mandate to protect the environment, control pollution, and provide for the welfare of humans through the health of the natural environment. Sections of the Act are dedicated to water, air, waste, noise, natural resource conservation and other environmental aspects. In 2004, the then Environmental Council developed the National Solid Waste Management Strategy for Zambia which proposes integrated approaches to addressing the problem of poor solid waste management.
The Environmental Management Act of 2011 renames Zambia-s Environmental Council into the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) and states its composition and functions. Part III is dedicated to integrated environmental management and includes a section on environmental impact assessments. Part IV details various aspects of environmental protection and pollution control. Part VI addresses environmental information, education and awareness, and environmental research. ZEMA regulates all matters related to environmental management, including approving environmental impact assessments for all prescribed projects. For the case of dumpsites or landfills, the ZEMA must issue an annually renewable operating license.
The Local Government Act (cap. 281 of the Laws of Zambia) empowers local authorities to enact by-laws applicable in their parts of the country. Laws on air quality, cleanness of surroundings, people movement, etc., are particularly expected. 
The primary law governing the mining sector in Zambia is the Mines and Minerals Development Act No. 11 of 2015 (MMDA) as amended by the Mines and Minerals Development (Amendment) Act No. 14 of 2016. The MMDA deals with mining rights, licences, large-scale mining rights, gemstone mining, health and safety, environmental protection, and geological services for analysis, royalties, and charges. 
Several challenges, however, exist for ZEMA in effectively implementing its mandate, stemming from inadequate human and financial resources. For instance, air pollution is regulated by ZEMA through a Statutory Instrument No.141, called the Air Pollution Control (Licensing and Emission) Regulations. This piece of legislation calls for self-regulation among polluters by submitting their bi-annual returns (reports) to ZEMA for assessment and to ensure that they emit below the statutory limits. However, this system has some inherent weaknesses as ZEMA lacks the human and technical capacity to verify the reports received and consequently mining companies continue to emit SO2 and PM in excess of both national and international limits. 
In addition, there is also low public awareness amongst local communities regarding environmental pollution and the mechanisms that have been put in place to combat pollution[12]. Creation of environmental awareness to local people is a best option to curbing problems of environmental pollution and therefore, ZEMA should embark on sensitizing people on the dangers of pollution.
The World Bank-funded $65.6 million Zambia Mining and Environmental Remediation and Improvement Project (ZMERIP) aims to reduce environmental health risks in critically polluted mining areas. The project, started in 2020, specifically targets the communities living in Chingola, Kabwe, Kitwe and Mufulira municipalities, including lead exposure in Kabwe municipality.
ZMERIP is financing the following interventions which will benefit communities, especially the poor and vulnerable, living in targeted contaminated areas: rehabilitation and closure of a pilot tailing dam and overburden site in the Copperbelt; in-situ remediation of contaminated soils in targeted households in the 4 municipalities; upgradation of infrastructure to prevent outflow of pollution from the main canal and greening and infrastructural upgrades of schools in Kabwe; sensitization and public awareness of hazards of lead and other heavy metal pollution; income generation and environmentally safe livelihoods for women and unemployed youth; testing and treatment of children with high blood lead levels in Kabwe; and improved technical and institutional capacity of regulatory authorities for environmental monitoring and compliance[18].

•	It is recommended that the Government of Zambia increase budget allocations and releases for the Zambia Environmental Management Agency.
•	Funding and technical assistance could result in more frequent reports on the environmental and social state of Zambia, improving the overall information available.
•	ZEMA must take measures to ensure accountability to the public in delivering its mandate for pollution control.
•	Efforts to develop freedom of information legislation should continue and should ensure that access to information on investment-related land acquisitions is included in its scope.
•	A coherent mainstreaming of sustainability concerns across all ministries, including mandates to specifically address sustainability, could redirect government emphasis towards the sustainability of investments, over the quantity of investments.
•	In addition to government mainstreaming, Zambia’s focus should be on building citizen awareness, accountability and equity, to improve the ability of the country as a whole to embrace sustainability.
•	Zambia should ensure that the laws and regulations on mining and the environment are enforced.
•	Interventions to reduce lead transportation, such as capping mine waste dumping sites with concrete or clean soil, would be of fundamental importance.
•	In order to have a comprehensive understanding of the extent of adverse impacts of mine air pollution on human health and the economic costs, future research involving interdisciplinary research groups is recommended.
•	ZEMA should embark on sensitizing people on the dangers of pollution and deploy more field workers so as to reach even remote areas when disseminating information on pollution.
•	The Government should put up measures to penalise all culprits of environmental pollution.

Located within the Zambezi River basin and Congo River basin, Zambia has abundant surface water and groundwater. However, there is an uneven distribution of water resources across the country[10], [11]. Climate change may exacerbate existing problems related to uneven distribution and is projected to reduce water availability by about 13 per cent by 2100. The different impacts on the water sector are expected to range from reduced water recharge in the case of increased temperature and reduced rainfall, compromised water quality, destruction to infrastructure and general reduction in water availability[10].
Climate change affects the amount and seasonality of rainfall and inflows into most rivers which has in turn affected the amount of electricity generated using hydroelectric. Zambia has invested significantly in hydroelectric power facilities. Reservoir storage in these facilities shows marked sensitivity to variations in runoff during periods of drought. Major dams have reached critical levels, threatening industrial activities[10].
Degrading water quality is increasingly undermining the important role of water in the country’s economic development[2]. The cost of water pollution is high. Water pollution negatively impacts health through the increased disease burden from poor quality drinking water, degrades the environment through accumulated toxins, nutrient loading and decreased biodiversity, and hurts the economy by reducing productivity and raising the cost of water treatment. Water quality is also directly linked to water availability, as the pollution of water resources may prohibit certain uses, such as providing safe drinking water.
Access to water supply and sanitation (WSS) services remains low in Zambia and disparities exist between rural and urban populations. As of 2017, about 67 per cent of Zambians had access to an improved water source (51 per cent rural vs 89 per cent urban) and only about 44 per cent had access to an improved sanitation facility (19 per cent rural vs 49 per cent urban). Approximately 19 per cent of Zambians practice open defecation. Zambia is one of the countries that missed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on access to water and sanitation and is on track to miss the more ambitious Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Access rates have remained almost stagnant over the past 15 years. Even where there is access, the quality of service is poor, especially in small rural towns and peri urban areas. Households receive an average of 16 hours of water supply per day, 6 per cent of water samples in urban areas fail bacteriological tests, and sanitation and sewer collection and treatment remain poor.
According to the World Bank (2017), poor WSS service is partly responsible for the high levels of childhood stunting (40 per cent) in the country, which represents a staggering loss of human potential in Zambia. Cholera outbreaks are also a common occurrence. The cholera outbreak in October 2017 resulted in 5,900 cases and claimed 114 lives. Additionally, the WSS plays a critical role in Zambia’s economy. World Bank estimates suggest that Zambia loses US$194 million every year due to poor sanitation, equivalent to 1.3 per cent of the country’s GDP[19].

Climate change projections point to increased inter-annual variability, with extremely wet periods and more intense droughts in the future. Observable and potential effects of climate change on water resources in Zambia include flooding, drought, change in the frequency and distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers and receding of water bodies, among others[10].
Zambia’s surface water bodies, such as the Kafue River, are under significant stress from discharges of industrial waste and sewage, and agricultural run-off of pesticides, fertilizers and sediment. Meanwhile, strategic groundwater resources, such as the aquifer system underlying Lusaka, are contaminated by on-site sanitation, industrial effluent and solid waste[17].

Zambia is abundantly endowed with natural resources and biological diversity[21]. The country is home to an estimated 3,543 species of wild flowering plants, 242 mammals, 757 birds, 74 amphibians, 156 reptiles and 490 fish species[22]. The main mechanism for conserving biodiversity in Zambia has been the creation of protected areas. Zambia has established over 480 forest reserves, 20 national parks and 40 Game Management Areas, among others. The protected area network is estimated to cover 286,161 km² or 37.8 per cent of the country-s total land area. In Zambia, forests, agro-ecosystems and wetlands are the most important ecosystems to the national economy and rural livelihoods[2].
Wetlands, including rivers, lakes, swamps and dambos, are an important source of livelihood for the majority of rural populations in Zambia[22]. They cover 3.6 million hectares (4.8 per cent) of the country-s total land area and include eight Ramsar sites (with a combined total area of 40,305 square kilometres. The fisheries subsector contributes about 3.2 per cent to the GDP, with 300,000 persons directly or indirectly obtaining part of their income from this sector. Fish account for 29 per cent of the animal protein supply in Zambian diets. More than 200 Crustacean species exist in various ecosystems in Zambia, of which more than half are endemics. The highest fish species richness is found in Lake Tanganyika, estimated to have over 200 species of fish, of which over 70 per cent are endemic to the lake.
Forests are known as a valuable natural and economic resource for supporting natural systems and improving peoples- livelihoods. Zambia-s forests are also important repositories of biodiversity and provide a wide range of goods for livelihoods (especially for the rural poor). A study published in 2014 concluded, using 2010 figures, that direct and indirect forest values (excluding the market value of carbon) directly contributed about 4.7 per cent or USD 932.5 million to the GDP. However, when the multiplier effects of forestry and tourism-related activities on other sectors are considered, the overall contribution of forests to the GDP was estimated to be at least 6.3 per cent or USD 1,252 million. The same study estimated that overall income derived from non-wood forest products is around USD 135.8 million per year.
Zambia-s agro-ecological systems are categorized into three agro-ecological regions (AERs), differentiated mainly by amount of rainfall received per annum. Small-scale farmers are responsible for producing 80 per cent of output (their contribution to livestock production is around 30 per cent). A small number of commercial or large-scale farmers are involved in commercial crop production in wheat, soya bean and sugar cane, and in livestock production. In spite of agro biodiversity being a vital resource for the country, it has not been given adequate attention in terms of management and utilization compared to forestry, wild animals and the fisheries. As a result, agro-ecological systems are facing several threats [22].
Zambia has a network of 42 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) covering a combined area of 105,382.5 km², approximately 14 per cent of Zambia-s total land surface area. Of which, around 82 per cent receive some sort of protection. However, over the past 15 years, a decline of around 35 per cent has been recorded in site occupancy in the most Important Bird Areas. Additionally, 11 bird species are listed as endangered[22].
Despite the importance of Zambia-s biodiversity, biodiversity loss in the country has reached unprecedented levels mainly due to anthropogenic activities in pursuit of economic gains[21].

Contributors to poor air quality in Zambia include copper mining, fertilizer manufacturing, vehicle emissions, and waste burning [15]. Air pollution from indoor sources is the single largest contributor to the negative health effects of air pollution in Zambia, causing an estimated 8,700 premature deaths every year. The majority of the population relies heavily on charcoal and firewood for heating and cooking, whilst candles and kerosene are used for lighting [5].
The growth of the urban population and increased economic activity has resulted in greater generation and the accumulation of waste in Zambia. In Lusaka, challenges affecting an efficient sustainable waste management system include the lack of waste separation at the source, insufficient funds, and a lack of equipment [17].

Goal 2 : End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment
2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5&#65533;years of age
2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5&#65533;years of age, by type (wasting and overweight)
2.2.3 Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage)